The present invention is related to pharmaceutical compositions which are particularly suitable for treating Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD, also known as ADD, both terms may be used interchangeably herein). More particularly, the present invention is related to pharmaceutical compositions, particularly comprising racemic or single isomer ritalinic acid or phenethylamine derivatives, such as methylphenidate or amphetamine, which can be rendered less susceptible to abuse or dose dumping and which can be tailored to achieve specific lipophilic and hydrophilic properties.
Shire is a prominent pharmaceutical company engaged in marketing medication for the treatment of Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD). In a “Shire News” informational newsletter published on the internet entitled, “Results from a European Caregiver Survey Highlight the Impact of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) on the Child and the Family”, the following excerpt from the section “About ADHD” is included below as a primer on ADHD. “ADHD is one of the most common psychiatric disorders in children and adolescents. Worldwide prevalence of ADHD is estimated at 5.3 percent (with large variability), according to a comprehensive systematic review of this topic published in 2007 in the American Journal of Psychiatry. In the United States, approximately 7.8 percent of all school-aged children, or about 4.4 million children aged 4 to 17 years, have been diagnosed with ADHD at some point in their lives, according to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). The disorder is also estimated to affect 4.4 percent of US adults aged 18 to 44 based on results from the National Comorbidity Survey Replication. When this percentage is extrapolated to the full US population aged 18 and over, approximately 9.8 million adults are believed to have ADHD. ADHD is a psychiatric behavioral disorder that manifests as a persistent pattern of inattention and/or hyperactivity-impulsivity that is more frequent and severe than is typically observed in individuals at a comparable level of development. The specific etiology of ADHD is unknown and there is no single diagnostic test for this syndrome. Adequate diagnosis requires the use of medical and special psychological, educational and social resources, utilizing diagnostic criteria such as Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders-IV (DSM-IV-TR) or International Classification of Diseases 10 (ICD-10). Although there is no “cure” for ADHD, there are accepted treatments that specifically target its symptoms. Standard treatments include educational approaches, psychological, or behavioral modification, and medication.”
The treatment of ADHD as manifested in adults and children is a disease with known treatment regimens. An overview of the symptoms, signs, diagnosis, prognosis, treatment and therapeutic agents applicable to these learning and developmental disorders can be found in The Merck Manual 18th Edition, ©2006, published by Merck Research Laboratories, pp. 2483-2486. Two drugs are principally used to treat these conditions: methylphenidate and dextro-amphetamine. The dosing regimen generally consists of first titrating the patient with immediate release (IR) dosage forms to effect the desired change while minimizing adverse effects followed by switching to an extended release (ER) formulation once the patient's response to the drug is understood. Both dextro-amphetamine and methylphenidate, in either IR or ER formulations, are stimulants and prone to abuse, misuse and diversion.
The abuse, misuse and diversion of controlled substances is discussed at length in U.S. patent application Ser. No. 11/805,225 [Bristol et al.], and Ser. No. 11/973,252 [King, et al.] and Ser. No. 12/423,641 [King et al.] wherein included are technical approaches to imparting anti-abuse and abuse deterrent features to controlled substances. The abuse of dextro-amphetamine and methylphenidate, both of which are controlled substances, is widespread. These drugs are readily prescribed and consequently, their common availability or access by diversion has made them comparatively easy targets for those people intent on abuse or misuse of the drug. The challenge to the pharmaceutical industry and to medical professionals is to provide these medications to patients in genuine need of the drug's therapeutic benefits while restricting or eliminating the ability to abuse the drug.
In the case of dextro-amphetamine, New River Pharmaceuticals has risen to the abuse deterrent/misuse/diversion challenge by preparing a prodrug form of dextro-amphetamine. New River's U.S. Pat. No. 7,105,486 B2 (Mickle et al.), the disclosure of which is incorporated herein by reference, describes the covalent attachment of L-lysine to the drug substance, amphetamine, to provide compounds and compositions exhibiting abuse-resistant properties and which are useful for the treatment of disorders including attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), attention deficit disorder (ADD), narcolepsy and obesity. The drug product incorporating the prodrug delivers an abuse deterrent feature through chemical means which would require some expertise to defeat—and only through chemical transformation. Unfortunately, the prodrug approach, in general, requires significant R&D resources to tailor each prodrug to a host of regulatory specifications before market approval can be granted by the FDA. Consequently, the prodrug approach is costly, time-intensive and does not provide a universal, platform solution to imparting abuse deterrent properties to the medically necessary amine-containing controlled substances. The invention described herein encompasses a platform approach to imparting abuse deterrent properties at the molecular level through unique salt forms of the opioid alkaloids.
Not surprisingly, the abuse, misuse and diversion of (dextro)-amphetamine and methylphenidate (racemic and single isomer) is due to the psychoactive effect these drugs exhibit which is similar to cocaine. In “The Chemistry of Mind-Altering Drugs, History, Pharmacology, and Cultural Context”, by Daniel M. Perrine, ©1996, published by the American Chemical Society, p. 196-198, the authors report on a study conclusively demonstrating methylphenidate and cocaine acted on the same part of the brain. Similarly, on page 193 the authors report that the final psychotic toxicity of amphetamines is “essentially identical to that found with cocaine”. While these drugs provide necessary medical treatment, their abuse serves no valued purpose to society. Consequently, the challenge is to provide these drugs, as drug substances and in dosage forms (drug products) which are not easily abused or misused and thereby diminish the motive for diversion.
In addition to the scientific and technical challenges faced by drug substance and product manufacturers, the United States government recognizes the severe detrimental consequences drug abuse has on the Nation and has taken action, principally through the Food and Drug Administration (FDA), in an effort to mitigate drug abuse. A summary of the FDA's intent, philosophy and actions is found in the Federal Register, Volume 74, Number 74, Monday Apr. 20, 2009, pages 17967-17970 as it relates to their Risk Evaluation and Mitigation Strategies (REMS) program for opioid-based drug products. However, a REMS program requirement may be required by all drug product manufacturers to ascertain the risk/benefit to (controversial) drug products as authorized by the Food and Drug Administration Amendments Act of 2007. Beyond cited opioids in the FDA's Federal Registry entry, all controlled substances including those of the present invention will likely be subject to a REMS requirement. A top level overview of the REMS initiative, presented by the FDA's top administrators, is available on-line. As the effort to fight drug abuse increases, the terminology employed to address the topic is evolving. In previous applications by the present inventors, “anti-abuse” was employed as a term to describe properties imparted to drug substances and drug products as a result of design engineering to these substances and products, features which inhibit their use in a manner for which they were not intended. As the terminology has evolved within administrative law, the term “abuse-deterrent” is more often employed. Within the context of this disclosure, no limitation is implied through the use of either term and both are engendered to be interpreted in the broadest sense. However, for completeness and to provide a broader understanding of the invention herein, the United States Food and Drug Administration in their January 2010 issuance of Guidance for Industry: Assessment of Abuse Potential of Drugs, it is stated: “Currently, the concept of abuse deterrence is viewed as the introduction of some limits or impediments to abuse, as opposed to the outright elimination of abuse.”
The Government Accounting Office (GAO) in a publication entitled, “Prescription Drugs, OxyContin Abuse and Diversion and Efforts to Address the Problem”, (GAO-04-110) in the “Recommendation for Executive Action”, page 42, stated: “To improve efforts to prevent or identify the abuse and diversion of schedule II controlled substances, we recommend that the Commissioner of Food and Drugs ensure that FDA's risk management plan guidance encourages pharmaceutical manufacturers that submit new drug applications for these substances to include plans that contain a strategy for monitoring the use of these drugs and identifying potential abuse and diversion problems.” It is well known that the amphetamines and methylphenidate are intentionally abused and diverted for illicit purpose.
Clearly there remains a need to address the abuse, misuse and diversion of schedule II controlled substances (both the active pharmaceutical ingredient and for the formulated dosage product). A host of technical requirements must be met in addition to the regulatory administrative requirements to meet society's needs. Beyond technical requirements, today's pharmaceutical marketplace requires inventions be consistent with the prevailing politics and policy of the federal government. The administrative controls being placed on the stakeholders involved in the commercial use of controlled substances are burdensome. The stakeholders include the drug manufacturer, distributor, the prescriber (physician and other medical personnel), dispenser (pharmacist) and the patient. Such burdensome administrative controls such as health provider certifications and the like may have the unintentional outcome of restricting necessary medications to those patients legitimately in need of the controlled substance, such as those substances of the present invention.
There has been a long felt need for pharmaceuticals, pharmaceutical systems, and methods of predictably altering pharmaceuticals to achieve the goals set forth above. Pharmaceuticals, pharmaceutical systems, and methods of predictably altering pharmaceuticals which are less susceptible to abuse, and particularly dose dumping, are provided herein. It is an object of the invention is to provide a beneficial technical solution which does not overwhelm the healthcare system and addresses an entire product/therapeutic family to curb prescriber and dispenser confusion.